A sting to kill a cow? Red velvet ant, a.k.a. cow killer, Dasymutilla occidentalis

In a previous episode of Bug of the Week, we lamented the scarcity of swallowtail butterflies in our gardens. Swallowtails have been scarce, but in my flower beds, bumble bees have been rocking. Bumble bees build nests in the ground, often in the former burrows of chipmunks, or sometimes in the hollow of a fallen tree. One might think a carefully constructed subterranean nest defended by bumble bees would be a pretty safe place to raise young. Most of the time this is true, but not so when red velvet ants are in town. This gorgeous insect is not an ant at all. Ants are social insects ruled by one or more queens governing a caste system of workers. Velvet ants are wasps in the family Mutillidae, a large group of solitary wasps that prey upon ground-nesting bees. We met a fast-moving velvet ant in the caldera of a sleeping Costa Rican volcano in a previous episode of Bug of the Week. The female velvet ant featured this week was discovered dashing about a local landscape. Red velvet ants are reported in most counties in Maryland and in addition to my home in Columbia, I have received images or specimens from Adamstown, Pasadena, Queenstown, and Bowie.  

Velvet ants, including the one we meet today, are part of a large mimicry ring. Bright contrasting colors of dozens of species of velvet ants, including Dasymutilla occidentalis, send a warning to potential predators that an attack will be met with a potent retaliatory response, a wicked sting. The easily recognized shared appearance of so many species of velvet ants is called Müllerian mimicry, first proposed by famed German naturalist Fritz Müller. Although lacking wings, the velvet ant is no slow poke. She runs like a demon while searching for a nest of unsuspecting bumble bees. Her powerful jaws and terrible stinger probably allow her to fight her way past bumble bee defenders and enter the brood chamber of the bee hive. In the brood chamber, bumble bee larvae are nourished and cared for by bee workers. The velvet ant lays a single egg on or near the bumble bee’s babes. This egg hatches into a velvet ant larva that consumes a developing bee. When fully developed, the wasp larva forms a pupa and later emerges as an adult velvet ant. Although female velvet ants are wingless, male velvet ants have wings that are shiny and jet black. The males fly about in search of flower nectar, pollen, and mates.  

It’s been a good year for bumble bees in my garden, working the blossoms and returning to nests, often abandoned chipmunk burrows. Elsewhere in the lawn, female red velvet ants prowl, searching for nests of ground nesting bees and wasps. If you see this amazing creature, avoid the urge to pick it up unless you yearn for a very memorable sting.

The lovely female velvet ant in this episode has yet another defense in addition to jaws and stinger. When grasped, she emitted a clearly audible squeaking sound. Squeaking, or stridulation in bug lingo, is a vibration produced by an insect. In this case stridulation occurs on the abdomen where one body part rubs against another. What purpose does the squeaking serve? Along with the bright red and black coloration, the loud squeak probably serves as a warning to any would-be predator that this beauty packs a punch. You see, the other common name for the red velvet ant is “cow killer.” When I grabbed one with a pair of forceps, an enormous, angry stinger emerged from the tip of her abdomen in search of something to punish. Some say that the sting of a velvet ant is strong enough to kill a cow. While this surely never happened, people stung by the velvet ant report a highly painful experience, long to be remembered.   

 Acknowledgements      

 We thank Tracy for the inspiration for this episode and for sharing an image of a beautiful eastern red velvet ant. Dr. Shrewsbury risked an awesome sting while capturing the subject for this episode. The fascinating article “North American velvet ants form one of the world’s largest known Müllerian mimicry complexes” by Joseph S. Wilson, Joshua P. Jahner, Matthew L. Forister, Erica S. Sheehan, Kevin A. Williams, and James P. Pitts, and the buzzy “Bees, wasps, and ants” by Eric Grissell were used to prepare this episode.

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Community gardens are fertile hunting grounds for interesting insects. On a recent visit to the West Side Community Garden in Columbia, Maryland, patches of milkweeds, mountain mints, and monardas were humming with pollinators large and small. In addition to the standard bees, butterflies, and flies, a couple of very impressive black wasps were busy in the florets. These were not social wasps like Asian giant hornets, European hornets, bald faced hornets, and yellow jackets, all colonial wasps that live in a nest ruled by a queen. These were solitary wasps, a part of the digger wasp clan. The larger of the two, Sphex pensylvanicus, goes by the name of great black wasp, while its smaller orange-legged cousin, Sphex nudus, is known as the katydid wasp.

As members of the digger clan, female great black wasps and katydid wasps excavate galleries a foot or more deep in the soil. This crypt will serve as the nursery and larder for the developing wasp larvae.  Female Sphex wasps search the treetops for those beautiful and melodious nighttime troubadours, the katydids we met last week. Once she locates her prey, she stings and transports her prize back to the subterranean burrow. Inside the burrow she provisions each brood cell with two to six victims and lays an egg on the underside of one katydid. Here is where this macabre tale gives me the willies. The katydids in the crypt are not really dead. They are just mostly dead, like the tortured Dread Pirate Roberts in the movie Princess Bride. Ah, but there will be no Miracle Max to rescue these unfortunate creatures. The venom of the great black wasp does not kill its prey; it merely paralyzes the victim. The moribund katydids are alive but cannot escape the jaws of the wasp larva as it proceeds to consume the hapless prey one by one over the span of about ten days. Whew, makes me glad I am not a katydid. Fully developed larvae spin cocoons in autumn and remain underground through winter, awaiting the return of summer before emerging from the earth to sip nectar and hunt katydids, crickets, and grasshoppers.

Sphex wasps are very fond of mountain mint and spotted horse mint. When the wasp probes the blossom for nectar, anthers dip down and release their pollen on its back.

One of the most curious pollination events takes place as great black wasps nectar at spotted beebalm, a.k.a horsemint (Monarda punctata), one of my favorite flowering plants by virtue of the vast number of insects it attracts. Unlike open-faced flowers such as sun flowers, horsemint provides a curious array of petals, anthers, and stigmas. Nectar fiends like the great black wasp land on petals and, as they probe deeper into the flower, pollen laden anthers dip down and discharge their yellow pollen grains onto the back of the wasp. As the insect moves from floret to floret pollen accumulates, turning the back of the great black wasp yellow. The transformation of the great black wasp to the great yellow-backed wasp never fails to amuse me. Spotted horse mint will always have a place in my garden.

Acknowledgements

The fascinating article, “The life-history and habits of the digger-wasp Ammobia pennsylvanica (Linn.)” by John A. Frisch was used as a reference for this episode. Bug of the Week thanks Dr. Shrewsbury for providing the inspiration and image for this story.

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Last week a friend inquired about all of the racket created by unseen insects as scorching days melted into somewhat less scorching nights here in the DMV. Near sunset as we enter the twilight zone, shrill daytime calls of several species of annual, a.k.a dog-day, cicadas are replaced by the courtship serenades of hopeful dusk-calling male cicadas and male katydids. Specific frequencies, amplitudes, and tonal patterns are used not only for species recognition, but also by females of each species to decide who will be the father of their nymphs. The winners of the entomological version of ‘The Voice’ win the right to mate and thereby move on to the finals evolutionarily, so to speak. Cicadas produce sound by vibrating a membranous, drumhead-like organ on the sides of their abdomen called a tymbal. The enlarged and mostly hollow abdomen of the cicada acts as an amplification chamber producing vibrations of 100 decibels, one of the loudest sounds in the animal world.

Watch as an annual cicada scales a tree before taking flight to the canopy. The abdomen of a daytime-singing cicada vibrates as he woos his mate. Leaf-mimicking angle-wing katydids are common in our area. Grooming appears to be an important part of the daily routine. To hear the gentle call of the greater angle-wing katydid, please click on this link. http://songsofinsects.com/katydids/greater-anglewing

Katydids use a very different anatomical mechanism to create sound. The katydid’s remarkable musical anatomy includes a forewing with a series of teeth called the file and an opposing forewing with a scraper. When the file moves across the scraper, vibrations reverberate across the wing – the song of the katydid. The common true katydid, Pterophylla camellifolia, creates an amplification chamber by bowing its forewings to help resonate its call. The result is one of the loudest and most easily recognized of all katydid songs.

So, if the guys are singing their hearts out, female cicadas and katydids must be able to hear their songs, right? Right! Both male and female cicadas have membranes called tympana on their abdomen that enable them to detect vibrations. The auditory organs or “ears” of katydids are located inside chambers of the front of their forelegs. How strange. As the dreadfully hot summer day transitions to evening, listen for the calls of the dusk singing cicada and enjoy his attempts to woo a mate in the treetops. And as twilight transitions to dark, when the songs of cicadas’ end, soon will begin the chorus of the katydids, serenades of six-legged summer romances.

Acknowledgements

“Songs of Insects” by Lang Elliott and Wil Hershberger, the wonderful Songs of Insects website, and “The mechanics of sound production in Panacanthus pallicornis (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae: Conocephalinae): the stridulatory motor patterns” by Fernando Montealegre-Z and Andrew C. Mason were used as references for this episode. Special thanks to Jen Franciotti for providing the inspiration for this episode.  

To hear the song of one of our local dusk singing cicadas, the Northern Dusk-singing Cicada, Megatibicen auletes, please click on the following link: http://songsofinsects.com/cicadas/northern-dusk-singing-cicada

To hear the song of one of our local nighttime chorusing katydids, the Common True Katydid, Pterophylla camellifolia, please click on the following link: http://songsofinsects.com/katydids/common-true-katydid

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 “Where are the butterflies?” Somewhat panicked questions like this started arriving several weeks ago and they don’t seem to want to go away. At first I was reluctant to acknowledge another concern in a year rife with uncertainty surrounding murder hornets, COVID19, and social unrest. Last week after a miserable showing of swallowtails at my butterfly magnet, also known as cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum), I shared the butterfly worries with several distinguished colleagues who confirmed that, yes, some butterflies were indeed scarcer this year in their gardens too. What a contrast to the summer of 2019, which seemed like butterfly nirvana with more than two dozen swallowtails nectaring at the same time on the cup plant in the front flower bed. This year, the butterfly magnet attained a paltry 3 swallowtails at any moment during the same week in which almost three dozen were sighted last year.

So, what gives with the butterfly drought? We know that changes in land use patterns associated with urbanization are responsible for dramatic losses in several insect species, including butterflies, in cities around the world. However, declines in the abundance of butterflies from one year to the next are often linked to more immediate ecological events. There are several key drivers of insect abundance. One important determinant of insect abundance is weather. In previous episodes we met a pair of invaders from the south, harlequin bugs and kudzu bugs. We have learned that as winter temperatures dip into the low teens and single digits it is simply too cold for these rascals to survive in Maryland, and their populations persist only in warmer redoubts further south. A second vital factor for insect survival is, of course, food. Changes in insect populations related to food resources are generally termed bottom-up effects. Part of the explanation for declines in monarch populations in North America are linked to reductions in populations of milkweed plants critical for larval survival. Moreover, scarcity of high quality nectar sources necessary to sustain adults as they migrate to overwintering hideaways, survive winter’s chill, and sally forth in late winter and early spring to colonize breeding grounds may be reducing populations.  A third major factor affecting insect populations, known as top-down effects, stems from Mother Nature’s hit squad of predators, parasites, and pathogens attacking, consuming, or infecting their victims. Long-term suppression of gypsy moths resulted when scientists reunited a fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga, from Asia with this killer of oak trees. This widespread pathogen helps keep gypsy moth at bay throughout much of its range.

How does all this relate to missing butterflies? Most notably scarce are several of large swallowtail butterflies including eastern tigers, black swallowtails, and spice bush swallowtails we visited in previous episodes. Butterfly experts suggest that some of these large swallowtails may have been fooled by some exceptionally warm weather in February followed by a rainy, chilly, and in some places frosty March, April, and May. Freeze warnings, frost, and record cold temperatures were recorded in several locations in Maryland in early May. Perhaps a few late season frosts took a toll on these beauties. On the bottom-up side of things, some think that drought stress in late summer and early autumn of 2019 may have reduced the quality of food resources for caterpillars as they completed development, thereby reducing their numbers or perhaps reducing chances for survival of pupa about to face winter’s wrath. Some have suggested that a really good year last year for some caterpillars translated into higher numbers of parasitoids and predators. In previous episodes we met rapacious caterpillar killers like wheel bugs and spined soldier bugs. We also know that many vertebrate predators, including insectivorous birds such as chickadees, depend on caterpillars for their survival. When numbers of caterpillars increase, so too do the numbers of these birds. While swallowtails have been scarce this year, I have never enjoyed as many blue jays, cardinals, wrens, and chickadees zooming around the yard as I have this spring and summer. Perhaps a bounty of caterpillars in the spring of 2019 translated into greater numbers of predators and parasitoids that put a damper on populations of some of our butterflies this year.

Swallowtails and some other butterflies seem unusually scarce in the DMV this spring and early summer. Unusual weather including late spring frosts, poor quality food resources last autumn, and mortality related to predators and parasites may have conspired to reduce their numbers.

Should we fear that a scarcity of swallowtails in 2020 portends a pending butterfly apocalypse? Nah, I don’t think so. Many other species of butterflies appear to be doing just fine. Silver spotted skippers and their kin arrived in my garden right on schedule in great numbers, as did cabbage butterflies. Peregrinations along the C & O Canal this spring and summer revealed zebra butterflies in good numbers and doing just fine. However, scientists warn that in the long term issues such as urbanization and climate change, including bizarre and severe weather patterns, spell trouble for many species of plants and animals, including insects. But as I finish writing this episode and look out the window to the cup plant, I see four tiger swallowtails getting their carbohydrate fix. Maybe upcoming broods of swallowtails will be bigger and better than their predecessors.

Acknowledgements

Bug of the Week thanks science writer, butterfly guru, and keeper of the Lep Log Rick Borchelt  for his insights and observations of butterflies throughout the region. Many thanks to colleagues in the Department of Entomology, especially Karin Burghardt and Leo Shapiro for providing references and helping clarify several points discussed in this episode. The following fascinating papers were consulted: “Western Monarch Population Plummets: Status, Probable Causes, and Recommended Conservation Actions” by Emma M. Pelton, Cheryl B. Schultz, Sarina J. Jepsen, Scott Hoffman Black and Elizabeth E. Crone; “Multiscale seasonal factors drive the size of winter monarch colonies” by Sarah P. Saunders, Leslie Ries, Naresh Neupane, M. Isabel Ramírez, Eligio García-Serrano, Eduardo Rendón-Salinas, and Elise F. Zipkina; “Declines and Resilience of Communities of Leaf Chewing Insects on Missouri Oaks Following Spring Frost and Summer Drought” by Robert J. Marquis, John T. Lill, Rebecca E. Forkner, Josiane Le Corff, John M. Landosky and James B. Whitfield; and “Nonnative plants reduce population growth of an insectivorous bird” by Desirée L. Narango, Douglas W. Tallamy, and Peter P. Marra.

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I really don’t have anything against beetles. In fact, beetles and I go back a long way as I studied many awesome leaf beetles in graduate school. However, butterflies, especially monarch butterflies, are a real delight and like many naturalists, I anxiously anticipate their return each year and celebrate their arrival. Two weeks ago the vanguard of what I hope will be a swarm of monarchs arrived and began poking around my milkweeds. Unfortunately, in advance of the monarchs, another hungry milkweed connoisseur moved into my butterfly weed patch well in advance of the monarchs. Milkweed leaf beetles are relatives of other members of the chrysomelid clan, a large group of beetles that includes dogbane leaf beetles, Colorado potato beetles, and three-lined potato beetles we met in previous episodes. Adults and larvae of this striking insect eat leaves of common and swamp milkweeds growing wild in meadows, and also butterfly weeds running rampant in my perennial beds. Adult beetles are voracious feeders and after colonizing my butterfly weed, they quickly removed large slices of leaves. Milkweed leaf protein is translated into batches of eggs inside the ovaries of females. About a week after eggs are laid, rotund orange beetle larvae hatch and graze night and day.

Tiny orange jellybean-like eggs on the leaves of my butterfly weed soon hatch and release rotund leaf beetle larvae intent on devouring milkweeds. Adult milkweed leaf beetles are large enough and apparently scary enough to displace small monarch caterpillars as they dine on milkweed leaves. Fortunately, butterfly weeds are prolific and there should be enough to go around for all of the insects that make a meal of milkweed.

One curious and somewhat disturbing habit of milkweed leaf beetle neonates is to go cannibalistic after hatching. Yes, some early hatchers perform the ultimate act of sibling rivalry and eat their unhatched brothers and sisters. Yikes! After starting life as meat eaters, the cannibals and their surviving siblings settle in to a vegan life style, consuming milkweed leaves before moving to the soil to pupate. In a few weeks, a fresh batch of adult beetles will emerge and initiate new conquests on my beleaguered butterfly weeds. As autumn approaches, the season’s last batch of adults fatten up on milkweed leaves before finding a protected refuge somewhere in my garden to spend the winter. As you can see, milkweed leaf beetles sport the same orange and black mien worn not only by the monarch, but also by milkweed tussock moths and milkweed bugs we visited in other episodes. This cabal of milkweed feeders has evolved the ability to thrive on milkweeds despite the presence of noxious heart poisons called cardiac glycosides found in the cells and sticky white sap of the milkweed plant. In some species like monarchs, these compounds are retained during the transformation of caterpillars into adult butterflies. Cardiac glycosides found in the wings of monarchs are known to cause severe digestive distress to avian predators. These compounds help protect monarchs from disappearing down the gullets of visually gifted predators like birds that regularly prey on caterpillars, butterflies, and beetles. Conspicuous orange and black colors worn by members of the milkweed gang serve as a reminder of a potentially nasty gastronomic misadventure to experienced birds and other predators that may have attempted to make a meal of a milkweed muncher. Fortunately for the monarch, butterfly weed is prolific and I hope there will be enough for everyone if and when the monarchs arrive in force.

Acknowledgements 

The delightful book “Secret Weapons” by Thomas and Maria Eisner and Melody Siegler, and the articles “Community-wide convergent evolution in insect adaptation to toxic cardenolides by substitutions in the Na,K-ATPase” by Susanne Dobler, Safaa Dalla, Vera Wagschal and Anurag A. Agrawal, and “Cannibalism and Kin Selection in Labidomera clivicollis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)” by Kathleen R. Eickwort were used to prepare this episode.

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In previous episodes we visited sensational Asian giant hornets, a.k.a. murder hornets, and some of their look-alikes including European hornets and cicada killer wasps. Last week I received my first image of a male cicada killer and a somewhat panicked inquiry wondering if this might be the vanguard of dreaded murder hornets ready to invade the DMV. Relax, male cicada killers are harmless to humans but not so to dog day cicadas. This week, let’s learn a bit more about these awesome wasps from excerpts of an episode of Bug of the Week posted a couple of years ago. Cicada killers kill cicadas as a food source for their young. During the daytime, female cicada killers hunt prey in the treetops where dog day cicadas are found. Once captured and paralyzed, cicadas are interred in subterranean crypts. To see how female cicada killers roll, please check out this episode of Bug of the Week, “Cicadas beware, the ladies are in town: Female cicada killer, Sphecius speciosus”.

Although they appear fierce and perhaps even dangerous, male cicada killers pose no threat to humans or pets. Only females have a stinger, and try as he might, the male’s jaws and genitalia failed to puncture my skin. However, I have heard tales of females delivering a memorable defensive sting when inadvertently stepped on or trapped under knee or hand. Video credit: Paula Shrewsbury, UMD

Recently, in advance of the appearance of the ladies, two male cicada killers established territories about twenty feet apart in my flower bed. So began a fierce competition for dominance of space and, I suppose, eventual access to the babes soon to emerge from the earth. Each morning shortly after sunrise as the morning sun warms the land, two feisty males arrive at their respective perches, one on a short yew bush and the other on the nozzle of my garden hose. As you will see in the video, they are on high alert, frequently leaving their perch for a short flight. Not quite understanding the thinking of the wasp mind, I imagine these forays are designed to provoke a battle with the other hopeful suitor. Occasionally, these sorties extend far enough from the perch that one male will enter the territory of the other. This results in a remarkable battle complete with frenetic buzzing and males interlocked in flight. It appears much biting and kicking goes on as evidenced by the response of a cicada killer when I captured one and held it. Eventually one breaks away and skedaddles toward my neighbor’s lawn with the victor in hot pursuit. But the victory seems fleeting. Male cicada killers either have remarkably short memories or indefatigable egos as the aftermath of these vicious mêlées soon results in both males returning to their perches only to repeat the battle a short time later.

One perched on a shrub, the other perched on my garden hose. These two fellows are pumped and looking for a tussle.  Short forays from the perch sometimes result in spectacular aerial battles as each tries to lay claim to the territory where females will soon appear.  Video credit: M. J. Raupp

Perhaps one sunny morning only one of these fierce flyers will remain and the vanquished will have departed for less ardently defended turf in search of his own mate.  But for now, with coffee in hand, this is the best early morning bug show in my garden.     

Acknowledgements

For more information about cicada killers including videos of them in action, please visit Chuck Holliday’s magnificent cicada killer website, BIOLOGY OF CICADA KILLER WASPS.

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Spotted beebalm, scarlet beebalm, and wild bergamot, these members of the Monarda clan are some of my absolute favorite perennial landscape plants. Why? By providing rich nectar rewards, these delightful natives are magnets for an astounding array of beneficial animals ranging from hummingbirds and gold finches to butterflies, bumble bees, hover flies, and myriad predatory and parasitic wasps. I have watched the summer parade of interesting and beautiful insects visiting Monardas for hours over a cup of coffee on sunny summer mornings.

But every year, there is foul-play afoot in my flower beds. Sometime in the latter days of May and early days of June, just as the bergamot is prepping to bloom, developing flower buds and their attendant sepals become shredded and riddled with holes. Close examination of the buds reveal tiny black pellets lodged in the nooks and crannies of the flower heads. Now, to bug geeks, tiny black pellets usually are a sign of insect activity. Said pellets are actually the excrement, a.k.a. frass, of caterpillars feeding within the flower buds. Some further poking around the nascent blossoms revealed small creamy colored caterpillars hiding in the axils of sepals and at the bases of florets. While identification of small caterpillars presents a challenge even to seasoned entomologists, identification of adult moths and butterflies is way easier. A more extensive search of the bergamot patch revealed a rather pretty raspberry pyrausta moth, a member of the crambid moth clan. Crambid moths, also known as snout moths, are named for the elongated mouthparts protruding from the front of their head. Many bore into the stems of grasses and other monocots and some, such as the European corn borer and sod webworm, are serious agricultural and lawn pests. Just one or a few of these caterpillars feeding within a developing flower bud are sufficient to all but ruin its floral display.

Here is the dilemma. For many herbivores in my landscape, the death sentence is commuted under a live-and-let-live policy with the belief that even pests will become food for other insects or birds higher in the food web. However, in the case of the raspberry pyrausta, lack of intervention translates into few or no blossoms on Monardas and few or no resources for pollinators, predators, and parasitoids dependent on nectar and pollen for their activity and survival. So, in this case the caterpillars gotta go to make way for the beneficial insects. Ridding the blossoms of caterpillars is fairly easy to do. As flower heads begin to form in late spring and early summer watch out for holes in leaves, feeding damage to developing florets, and small black frass pellets accumulating in the axils of leaves and sepals. Carefully search the flower head and when you locate the caterpillar, simply crush it. If you don’t like touching insects, don a pair of rubber gloves and do the deed. Mechanical destruction of the pest is foolproof and works well in small patches.

While some blossoms on my bergamot look fine, many are ravaged. This culprit is a small caterpillar feeding in the flower head. Chewed florets, holes in leaves, silk, and pellets of frass are telltale signs of the caterpillar. Regular inspections and crushing caterpillars when you find them will help keep your blossoms looking fine.

For larger plantings, you could consider using an insecticide listed by the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) for controlling caterpillars. These insecticides have been reviewed by scientists and approved for use in the production of organic food crops. Two of my favorites contain the active ingredient Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) or spinosad. Btk is derived from a common soil microbe and it works well on many species of caterpillars. If you grow milkweeds as a source of food for monarch caterpillars in your flower beds, take care not to spray Btk on your milkweed lest you poison any resident monarch larvae. Some brands of spinosad will also carry the OMRI stamp of approval and they work well on caterpillars. Spinosad is also a product of a soil microbe. This molecule attacks the nervous system of insects. But be careful with spinosad, as it is highly toxic to bees. If other plants in your garden are in bloom or are about to bloom avoid drift that might contact and harm charismatic pollinators. Use the same caution with Monarda. The pyrausta will be present in the early formation of flower buds but as florets form and mature, avoid using spinosad as bloom time approaches and certainly when flowers are in bloom. Many snout moths have multiple generations and in my experience the raspberry pyrausta is no exception. I have crushed several crops of caterpillars in the flower buds and just the other day, a few more adult moths dared to flit around my flower bed.

For a bug geek, watching the sunrise on a warm summer morning while sipping some coffee and squashing some caterpillars is not a bad way to start the day.  

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Shrewsbury for providing the inspiration for this episode as well as snapping some photos and crushing caterpillars to save the monardas from marauding caterpillars.

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